A few words about the structure of material substance before moving on to the topic of heat, because the microscopic structure of substance determines the mechanics of heat and electricity.
Structure of Substance
As always, at the beginning concepts and then more detailed explanations.
Condensed (solidified) ether forms the elementary particles. Elementary particles are impenetrable by the gaseous ether, and therefore the ether flows around them, but do not penetrates through them.
When we talk about the flow of ether through any material body, we mean the passage of ether in the space between atoms and through the gaps inside the atoms. Inside the atoms there are gaps between the elementary particles that make up the atoms.
The more complex and massive the substance, the more complex the system of gaps its atoms have.
Ether meets greater resistance when flowing through the intraatomic space of such complex substances, which is equivalent to greater atomic mass of complex and bigger atoms.
All these conceptions imply the existence of an absolute space in which both condensed and gaseous ether is located and moves.
Particles (grains) of ether are solid objects, that is, impenetrable to each other. In other words: an absolute space with volume equal to the one grain of ether can contain only one particle of ether.
The grains of ether are usually in solitary state, that is, unconnected to other grains of the ether. This gaseous state, we call free ether; in this state exists the ether that forms the space (universe).
Grains of ether also can be in a condensed solid state (phase). This state is characterized by the absence of gaps between the ether particles, that is, their tight fit to each other.
Two ways of condensation of gaseous ether into solid phase are evident.
The first method is gravitational; it is implemented on a giant scale inside the gravitational celestial bodies, and is described in more detail in the section devoted to gravity.
The second method is realized in micro scale inside atoms. It has a mechanism similar to capillary condensation and has hysteresis. That is, the destruction of the monolithic ether and blowing out fragments and evaporation of ether from these cracks occurs at higher temperatures than condensation.
The monolithic state of ether can be stable or unstable. Protons are stable, because their form provides mutual protection to all grain from extracting by external grains of free ether. (more on it in the next article)
Unstable solid state of ether can be visualized similar to ice fragments, or clusters of ether. These pieces of solid ether are exposed to the surrounding gaseous ether, which constantly bombards the solid phase turning it into gaseous ether.
Obviously, protons and all sorts of smaller and larger conglomerates of monolithic ether can be formed as a result of gravity.
As a result of the decay of the monolithic ether fraction inside intraatomic gaps, can be formed only fragments whose sizes do not exceed the size of the cracks in which they were condensated, i.e. smaller than protons.
The size of ether particles is extremely small compared to the size of the minimum possible stable condensed ether conglomerate (proton).
The particles of ether (grains) can be visualized as simple indivisible elements that move in absolute empty space, colliding with each other; similar to the normal gas as it pictured by modern science.
Such a simplified representation of ether grains makes sense, at least in order to stop at the level of ether, and to avoid “bad infinity”, where each subsequent structural level of matter would have an even smaller internal structure.
The schematic representations described above are sufficient to answer the question in principle: ”Why do heavy substances have a large mass (greater resistance to ether accelerations)? “– Because their area and hence “aerodynamic” resistance increases with the number of protons (the smallest stable blocks of condensed ether).
This model also explains another physical phenomenon: “mass defect”. Moreover, the existence of the mass defect phenomenon naturally follows from this model, and is one of the arguments in favour of the proposed model of substance in relation to explanation of the nature of mass.
The defect of the mass is explained by the circumstance that with the increase in the number of protons comprising the atom, the resistance of the viscous friction of the atom increases not in proportion to the number of protons, but to a somewhat lesser extent.
Resistance to the motion of atoms in the ether is a statistical parameter, and is determined by the average drag of atoms streamlined by ether in all possible directions.
One proton (hydrogen atom) has a single atomic mass, that is, on average it has a singular resistance to acceleration in the ether.
The deuterium atom, consisting of two protons, has an average acceleration resistance in the ether slightly less than two separate protons. This is explained by the fact that in two-proton deuterium atoms protons partially shield each other.
As the number of protons in an atom increases, the mass defect of the atom grows in value, as the number of shielded and shielding protons increases.
The defect of atomic mass depending on the atomic weight of the element (the graph is based on the table of atomic weights of elements).
From a historical point of view, such a parameter as the mass defect per one nucleon is of interest. There are no special physical reasons for the increased attention to this abstract value, but for the last 70 years it has been closely connected with the popular belief in thermonuclear synthesis. In the scientific community there was a widespread belief that the mass defect is a consequence of the transformation of mass into energy. Huge efforts of society began to be spent for search of a way of creation of helium atoms from hydrogen atoms in hope to receive as a result an output of energy.
The energy released or absorbed during the transformation of the substance depends on the type of conversion and the amount of ether changing its phase state; the atomic mass of the substance is of secondary importance.
The author deliberately tries to avoid the term “nucleus” and to use only the term “atom”, since supposes that there are no nuclei in atoms as it described by popular science, because there are no electrons as particles of substance. What science takes for electrons are ether vortices of a special form, that is, it is quite material formations, but not substance.
The mass defect per one proton decreases with each subsequently added proton in full compliance with the geometry, since the shape of the atom will approach the spherical one. In this form of the atom, the difference between various directions of blowing is statistically levelled.
And after the atoms reach the order of fifty-six protons, the degree of influence of each new proton begins to decrease, since the added outer protons shield the inner protons to lesser extent (due to increased sizes of inter-proton gaps), which we observe on the graph of the defect of the mass per proton depending on the number of nucleons in the atom. (The graph shows only stable isotopes)
So, the atomic nucleus consists of a single kind of nucleons, which we will continue to call protons, implying a completely different meaning. A distinctive feature of our protons is the possession of the attached etheric vortices. And neutrons, in our understanding, are the same protons in the free state, which do not have attached etheric vortices (the differences between neutrons and protons will be considered later).
The structure of the proton
Protons are the smallest particles of substance (already substance, not just matter!). But what causes the grains of ether to form identical ensembles, which preserve their structure when moving through the ether, and preserve their structure while connecting with other protons in various combinations forming atoms?
The following answer to this question is proposed:
The structure of the proton is the smallest possible three-dimensional figure (cluster) composed of ether grains, which allows to withstand against external strikes and redirect these strikes coming from the outside, from the free ether, so that all the grains of the cluster retain mutual engagement and move as a whole.
Such a figure is most likely a dodecahedron, as having the shape closest to the ball of all Platonic bodies (regular polyhedra).
This structure assumes the absence of internal voids (taking into account the process of formation by compression), and most importantly, the outer layer (shell) of such a structure should be formed by “snapping” ether grains tightly with each other. That is, at a certain stage of increasing the size of the dodecahedron constructed from the same balls (grains) of ether, there should be a situation in which there are no voids inside the cluster, and in which the faces are close enough to the ideal planes, and the edges of the dodecahedron are composed of an integer number of grains.
The size of such a structure should be unique and unambiguous, that is, the repetition of the coincidence of all the above conditions for some other (larger) size should have too much mass at the existing ether pressure. It would be very interesting to find an algorithm or formula to calculate the number of spherical grains satisfying the conditions of formation of such an ideal dodecahedron. By the way, this amount will be equal to the ratio of the ether’s grain size to proton.
The stability of the structure (“lock”) in this case is provided by the external pressure of the ether surrounding the proton. The external pressure, that maintain the structure of the proton, applied to the protons from the surrounding gaseous ether. This mechanism is somewhat similar to the phenomenon of surface tension, if we imagine that the attraction of the outer layer of ether grains to the inner is due to the absolute vacuum between the ether grains.
In cases where the proton is a part of a structure of atoms, the external pressure of the ether is applied to the proton not only directly from the surrounding ether, but also through other protons with which it comes into contact in the atom.
Thus, the same mechanism of maintaining the structure works at the next structural level of matter – the level of atoms. That is, nucleons in atoms are also held together by the external pressure of the ether.
Such a world order looks at first glance quite fragile / ephemeral, since the stability of the substance depends on the pressure of the ether. But it is this circumstance that allows to close the chain of mutual transformations of ether – substance – ether, and ultimately is the material basis of dialectical variability and infinite diversity of our world.
At the same time, this model explains the observed uniformity of the structure of substance in all parts of the universe. This uniformity is based on the identity of all the grains of ether.
Our model of the proton and the atoms requires the pressure of the ether, to be above a certain minimum threshold. When the pressure of the ether falls below this threshold, the stability of the substance is not provided.
It is obvious that such a mechanism has some limited range of stabilizing feedback.
Reason: as the external pressure decreases, the external effects on the protons also decrease, i.e. the external shocks have a lower intensity, which helps to maintain the stability of the substance. But this balance is broken at some threshold minimum pressure, when the external pressure is not enough to hold together the ether grains, and even a rather weak external impact leads to knocking out the grain, since the external pressure does not compensate for the impact.
The same can be said about the increase in the pressure of the ether, there is a threshold at which the average external pressure becomes insufficient to compensate for individual impacts on individual grains entering the proton. This scenario is realized when the temperature of the substance increases, i.e. the speed of rotation of the attached vortices of the ether.
Let us now, based on this model, consider the main structural stages of the material world:
The first structural level of matter – ether grains which located in absolute space. Free Ether.
The second structural level of matter – protons (already substance) – clusters of ether grains, held together by the external pressure of the ether.
The third structural level of matter – atoms: clusters of protons held together by the external pressure of the ether.
The fourth structural level of matter – molecules– clusters of atoms, held together by the ether vortices which accompanying atoms, what is commonly called electric forces.
As we can see the ether pressure plays a significant role at all structural levels of the organization of matter, including chemical (the fourth in our classification). Chemical bonds ultimately depend on the pressure of the ether, since the parameters of the ether vortices certainly depend on the ether pressure.
In this regard, we can mention the research (effect) of S. E. Shnol, who discovered the dependence of any chemical and nuclear processes on cosmological factors, which is the pressure of the ether surrounding us.
We should also mention the Casimir effect, which is a direct confirmation of our model of the substance based on the structures held together by the pressure of the ether.
And also note that our model gives an explanation of the so-called strong interaction, its paradoxical property to act only at close distances.
Going back to the structure of a proton – generally speaking, the shape of a proton can be quite simple, starting with four ether particles (a tetrahedron, a dodecahedron, or a cube). This simple form should have a complex internal structure. The convex smooth surface is not suitable; the necessary surface is composed of flat polygons, in order for effect of the “Magdeburg hemispheres” to work.
Let us repeat that the key principle in this structure is the transfer of the blows of the surrounding ether grains evenly in all directions inside the proton, which allows to preserve its structure. Since the proton in collisions with ether grains acts as a monolithic structure having a much larger mass than the ether grains hitting it.
Proton-Dodecahedron:
The figures below shows the possible clusters of grains of the ether, which correspond to our model of the proton based on the assumption that the grains of ether are simple balls. To consider the grains of ether as balls is a well – founded assumption at the present stage of our ignorance, with the hope to return to this issue later, if there are prerequisites for this.
If an additional grain, or a group of ether grains, joins any outer face of such a cluster, they will be pressed against the cluster only if the surrounding free ether grains collide with them at angles close to the normal to the surface of the proton. It is obvious that any growths on the surface of the proton, regardless of the method of their appearance will not be able to persist for a long time, thus self-calibration of protons in size and mass, respectively, is carried out.
If we trace the history of protons, since their birth in the depths of stars and planets, there is such a picture:
As a result of the action of the gravitational vortex, a high ether pressure is created inside the stars, which presses the ether grains to each other. A solid densely packed monolith of ether grains is created.
When such a monolith enters the layers coming to the surface of the star, with a lower pressure of the ether, in conditions facilitating to its fragmentation, as a result of the faults of the ethereal monolith, the fragments will have a very diverse shape. Gradually, individual protons and atoms of more complex substances will be formed from them, and all the grains of the ether that turned out to be unrelated to stable structures will be sublimated into a free, gaseous ether.
The degree of compression depends on the degree of dilution of the ether, since the decrease in the volume of the ether during condensation is determined by the difference in the volumes occupied by the ether before and after condensation, and if the ether particles moved having large free path distances, then the degree of compression of the ether during condensation will be large, determined by these distances.
And finally, before finishing with the topic of general principles of atomic structure, it should be mentioned that there is no fundamental need for atoms, especially more complex atoms, to have a spherical shape. The shape of atoms is rather close to the shape of crystals, with a layered structure and faces. This form is in better agreement with the observed variety of properties and spectra of substances, as well as with a fairly easy and widespread transmutation of elements, both in biology and in inorganic nature.
As for the stability of crystal-like atoms in comparison with spherical ones, the basis of stability is laid at the level of protons, which have the shape of a dodecahedron that is close to the sphere. These, stable at the level of atoms, structures only need to be held together, keeping the possibility of modification in their combinations. Such a restructuring of the structure of atoms would be much more difficult if the atoms had a spherical shape.
Now, let’s see how atoms formed from dodecahedrons can look like.
Hydrogen, the proton. Later, in the section dedicated to molecular bonds, we will consider how 2 and 3 atomic hydrogen molecules H2 and H3 can be formed.
Hydrogen isotope deuterium. Two dodecahedrons joint by their faces. Since the faces are flat, there is no gap between them, which means there is no free ether between the faces. The forces holding two protons together depend on the pressure of the surrounding ether. The deuterium complex is very strong, since the mechanical forces that may break its bond have a short lever arm.
The hydrogen isotope tritium 3H consisting of three protons, has twice the length of the arm, compared to deuterium, which makes tritium atoms less durable and therefore unstable, with a half-life of 12 years.
The instability of the linear arrangement of protons in the tritium atom is especially obvious, if we compare it to the atom of helium 3.
The same three protons, but organized into a more compact structure, with a shortened length. This is where we first encounter the gap between protons. It would seem that the presence of gaps indicates the imperfection of our model. At least due to the fact that the atoms do not form a continuous dense structure and do not provide the ideal filling of space. The search for such an ideal packaging is one of the tasks of the corresponding branches of mathematics, geometry and topology. And the consideration of the properties of structures characterized by numerous gaps does not attract much attention of popular science. For our approach, the presence of voids is a required, absolutely desirable and necessary factor, since the gaps provide the possibility of the existence of the attached vortices of the ether.
If in Helium 3 all protons are in the same plane, then Helium 4 looks like its three-dimensional copy. Accordingly, instead of one slit, there are three.
On this further advance of atoms in this direction is suspended. The addition of another proton-dodecahedron leads to the creation of an unsymmetrical, and therefore unbalanced figure. Such a figure has little chance to maintain its shape during movements and collisions, and is unlikely to form periodic structures such as crystals. Therefore, stable atoms with an atomic weight equal 5 are not observed in nature.
Consideration of all possible combinations of dodecahedrons will require too much time; so next we focus only on the structures of atoms of stable isotopes of substances.
The next symmetrical figure, which can be composed of dodecahedrons resembles a rosette and contains six protons.
The presumed structure of the atoms of Lithium-6. Top view and bottom view of the “rosette” formed by five dodecahedra around the central dodecahedron (proton). Lithium 7 differs from the one shown in the figure in that the cavity in the following figure is filled with the seventh proton. The result is a fairly symmetrical figure.
Lithium atom 7, the addition of a proton inside the “rosette” makes the atom more symmetrical. Full symmetry, as we’ll see later, will be in the atom of carbon, which is different from the lithium atom 7, in that it has six additional protons. (Surprisingly six, Not five!)
Another variant of the Lithium 7:
Then again follows the lapse, stable atoms with an atomic weight of 8 does not exist. The reason is the same as with the absence of stable atoms with five protons – the impossibility of creating centrally symmetric figure of eight dodecahedrons. It seems that there should be an additional condition that freely arranged linear chains of dodecahedrons cannot be composed of more than 2 dodecahedrons. This condition is well illustrated by the example of tritium, which is a chain of 3 dodecahedrons, and therefore is an unstable element.
The Law of Mechanics 